Filipinos "filipinized" Christianity and Islam and
blended them with their indigenous rituals and practices.' In towns where were
founded "new" churches, such as the Philippine Independent Church, conflicts
arose. Religious differences among inhabitants carried over into other facets of life,
such as civic projects, fiestas, and other celebrations, and politics.
Comprising only 5% of the population, Muslim Filipinos are insignificant in
number, but they exert a considerable force in Philippine society." Spanish
colonizers were unable to subjugate them completely. The Muslims waged such
fierce battles against the Americans that the gar-rand automatic rifle had to be
invented to put down juramentados (those running amok). The relationship of the
Muslims with the central government in Manila has not been uniformly cordial
either. Concentrated mostly in Southern Mindanao and Sulu, Muslims live far from the center of government, so they feel remote from the mainstream of Filipino
politics. Their separation, resulting from history, geography, and culture, has
created tensions between them and other Filipinos. During the 1950s, many Filipinos
from Luzon and Visayas settled in Mindanao, then considered "the Philippine
frontier. " Because of its vast, rich, and unexploited natural resources, the region
was called the "land of promise." The influx of migrants resulted in conflicts.
Immigrants and natives clashed as they competed for the control of land. In the
1970s, foreign corporations in Mindanao exacerbated the situation."
Religious differences were only one of the factors contributing to the conflicts in
Mindanao. In communal strife, it is easy to point to religious differences, but the
situation was more complex. Terrorist groups and private armed bands, soldiers and
the various Muslim factions, all were in conflict. The Muslims themselves were
divided into some ten major subgroups, the principal group being the Maguindanaos,
the Maranaos, and the Tausogs. Traditionally, they had been separately governed
under two sultanates: those of Maguindanao and Sulu."
Economic and social classes, however, were not as numerous or as complex as
ethnic diversities. Most people lived below the poverty line. Only a few families
controlled the wealth of the region. The gap between rich and poor has not narrowed
over the years but has widened in spite of the relative increase in gross national
product during the 1970s; social mobility has come to a standstill.
The many variations, differences, and disparities are unified by a political entity
called the Philippines. One can appropriately refer to the Philippines in the singular
and in the plural "because ... the name refers both to an island archipelago and to
a unified nation with a single people and a highly fragmented and plural[istic]
society."" As a national entity it declared its political independence on June 12,
1898.'^ While its independence from Spain was being proclaimed, the first republic
in Asia was already threatened by the occupying forces of the United States. In its
infancy, the emergent nation was stifled internally by its inherent differences. Still
emerging as a nation, the Philippines remains rife with ethnic and class loyalties that
often take precedence over national interest or allegiance.
Fred Eggan, a noted anthropologist, observed that the basic problem of the
Philippines has been to develop and maintain enough unity to overcome the forces
making for division. For many periods in Philippine history the question of whether
the Philippines would exist as a unit or be broken up into regions, or into religious
groups, has been a serious one.15
Since the latter nineteenth century, nationalism has been important to Philippine
history, but even up to the present time, it remains a weak force compared to the
hold of ethnicity and patron-client relationships. Ideologies little influence political
behavior. In the pursuit of power and influence, the network of alliances founded
through patrons and clients plays the more dominant role. Interest in tangible
rewards far surpasses ideas in attracting and bringing peoples together. In a "nation
divided against itself,"" rulers do not have to create dissensions. In a nation where
nationalism and ideology are still developing, authority and obedience can be
established by giving or withholding tangible rewards and by threatening to use force
and punishment; thus, Philippine history and society have been molded by allegiances to the nation and to the group. More often than not the latter prevails,
and at certain times the consequences of the prevalence have not been beneficial to
national interests.
LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS: A SPANISH COLONIAL OUTPOST
Pre-Hispanic Philippine society was composed of independent communities called
barangays. There was no central ruler or government, although some settlements
did form alliances and groupings. Each village was headed by a data or headman.
Sufficient food was produced for consumption. Land was communal, although each
farmer tilled a parcel for himself. Trade by barter was conducted among villages as
well as with people from far-away places such as China.